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In our Previous article, we discussed a few major theories proposed at different times regarding the distribution of Oceans and Continents. Continuing the discussion we will learn about Seafloor Spreading and Mid-Oceanic Ridges. Seafloor spreading  In 1960, American geophysicist Harry H. Hess proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis. According to this theory, the ocean floor is moving or spreading away from ridges, due to repetitive magma intrusion that split and spread the older sea floor, causing them to be moved away from the ridges in a nearly horizontal position. Cold sea water cools the magma, by creating a new crust. The upward movement and eventual cooling of magma have created high ridges on the ocean floor over millions of years.  Seafloor spreading also indicates, that since the new floor forms constantly at the ridge crust and moves sideways, there is a progressive increase in age away from the ridge crest. Accordingly, there is a lack of pelagic sediments at the ridge crust while it is progressively thicker on the older sea floor as it moves.  Mid-Oceanic Ridges (MOR): Mid Oceanic Ridges (MOR), are submarine relief features. Generally, they submerge beneath the ocean water, however, local crowning above the level of oceanic water gives rise to islands such as Iceland, Mauritius, Lakshadweep, etc. MORs are divergent-type plate boundaries, the sites of active seismicity. Shallow-focus earthquakes occur at MOR, whereas deep-focus earthquakes are generally associated with island arcs/ subduction zones (convergent plant boundaries).  The rift valley of MOR crust is formed when the rising mantle rock/lava splits and diverges sideways, as a result, tensional cracks open, where shallow focus earthquakes occur, consequently the rift valley fills up with basaltic lava and creates new crust. Intense magmatism of low potassium-olivine lava types is associated with MOR, which results in the formation of basic rocks such as olivine-gabbro, serpentine, basalt diabase, etc. Geophysical studies on MOR show that, the basaltic roots are present about 30 km deep into the lower mantle for a height of the ridge of 1.6 km above the ocean bottom. This deep rooting ensures isostatic balance.  MOR is characterized by high gravity anomaly, whereas the paleomagnetic studies on MOR reveal that, the normally and reversely magnetized rocks on one side of the ridge were the mirror image of those on the other side (which is also called bilaterally symmetrical arrangement of magnetized rocks). So far the best known MOR is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge; Carlsberg Ridge in the Indian Ocean; Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean and the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge which lies between Antarctica and New Zealand and Australia. Deep Sea Trenches  Deep Sea Trenches are long narrow basins that extend 8-11 km below sea level. Trenches develop adjacent to subduction zones, where the oceanic lithosphere slides back into the mantle.  Strong negative gravity anomalies over the deep-sea trenches are thought to be due to some active force that must be pulling down the bottom of the trenches. According to the hypothesis of Sea-floor spreading, this force is the subduction of the sea floor caused by the cooling and shrinking of mantle rock. Relatively low heat flow values, found in the oceanic trenches indicate that the rocks beneath the trenches are cooler than normal. The trenches are the places of earthquake foci and associated volcanic activity. Most of the world's greatest seismic activity occurs in the trenches and the adjacent island arcs.

Shishunag Dynasty ( 412-325 BCE) Shishunag was an amatya of the last ruler Nagadasak. He temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali. Shishunaga defeated the last ruler King Pradotya of Avanti, ending a 100-year-old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. He also annexed Kosala.  Shishunag was succeeded by his son Kalashok (kakavarna). He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali. Kalasoka shifted the capital back to Pataliputra. He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne. Nanda Dynasty   (345-321 BCE) The Shishunag dynasty was succeeded by the Nands (the first non-Kshatriya).  Mahapadmananda: The Puranas call him a shudra belonging to the barber clan, while the Buddhist tradition calls him Ugrasen because of his large army. He claimed to be Ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all other ruling princes and sarva Kshatrantaka, uprooter of the Kshatriyas. Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, mentions a king named Nanda who built a canal and conquered Kalinga.  Dhanananda: He was ruling Magadha at the time of Alexander’s invasion. He was a powerful king who ruled over the eastern people and the people of the lower Ganga valley. He is believed to be an arrogant and oppressive ruler, his greed and exploitation made him unpopular, and ultimately Chandragupta Maurya under the guidance of Kautilya, uprooted the Nanda rule and set up the Maurya empire.  Factors responsible for the success of Magadha Geographical position:  Rich deposits of copper and iron were available near the Magadha region which could help in making better weapons and agricultural implements. Girivraja or Rajagrih, the early capital, was surrounded by five hills, which helped it to provide natural fortification. Connectivity: The Ganga and its tributaries connected this kingdom with important trade routes. Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of the Ganges, the Gandak, and the Son, and this provided easy transport in all directions.    Superior military organization: The huge availability of resources allowed Magadhan rulers to maintain a large army. Magadh was the first state to use elephants on a large scale.    Socio-cultural factors: The people of Magadha were materialistic in outlook and unorthodox in character and rulers thus invested their time and resources in the socio-economic progress. However, in the later period, it underwent ethnic admixture.  Role of Magadhan ruler: The aggressive as well as pragmatic policies of some Magadhan rulers contributed significantly to the success of Magadh imperialism. For example- the matrimonial alliance policy of Bimbisara and the aggressive policy of Ajatshatru.   References: A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Ancient and Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya Higher Secondary First year, Tamil Nadu Board Prateek Nayak Notes

The period between 600-300 BCE is known as the period of Mahajanapada, also known as the era of ‘Second Urbanisation’. Large territorial states began to emerge around the sixth century BCE as a result of the growing usage of iron. With the help of agricultural tools and implements, peasants were able to produce more food than was needed, and the warrior class also gained prominence as a result of the iron weapon, which allowed them to expand at the expense of neighboring territories in addition to defending their land. Thus, by the end of the later Vedic age, the tribal polity gave way to the rise of territorial states. By 500 BCE, Janapadas became a common feature. Panini mentions approximately forty Janapadas, encompassing even Afghanistan and southeast Central Asia. Some of the Janapadas, including Magadha and Kosala, evolved into Mahajanapadas by the sixth century BCE. According to the Buddhist canonical text Anguttara Nikaya, the land between the Himalayas and Narmada was divided into “Solasa Mahajanapada”. They were either monarchical or Oligarchic. The monarchies were mainly found in the Gangetic Plains while the republics were situated around the foothills of the Himalayas and in the north-western India in modern Punjab.   State Capital Other Related Aspect Kashi Varanasi Emerged as a leading center of cotton textile manufacture during the time of Buddha. Kashi was involved in occasional conflict with Anga and Magadha but later was absorbed into the Kosala kingdom.  Kosala Shravasti (Northern Capital), Kushavati (Southern Capital) King: Prasenjit(Buddha’s contemporary). Kosala was eventually annexed by the Magadha.  Vajji Vaishali(North Bihar) King: Chetaka. He was the Brother of Trishala (mother of Mahavira) and father of Chellana (wife of Bimbisara). According to Buddhagosa’s commentary on the Digha Nikaya, the Sumangalavilashini, the Vajjis were a confederacy of 8 clans. It was not easy for Ajatshatru to break the unity of the Vrijjis. With the advice of Vatsakar started creating dissensions among 8 clans. Two innovative weapons-Rathmushal and Mahashilakantaka were employed. Finally, after 16 years Vajjis were defeated and annexed by Magadha.  Mallas Kushinara and Pava  Buddha took his last meal at Pava and went to his Mahaparinirvana at Kushinara. The Mallas appeared to have formed an alliance with the Lichhavis for self-defense but lost their independence and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.  Chedi Shuktimati or Sotthivatinagara King: Shishupala  Vatsa Kaushambi near Allahabad King: Udayana. Famous for its fine cotton textile. Kuru Indraprastha Up to the time of the Buddha, the kurus were a monarchy, subsequently, they became a sangha. Panchala Ahichchhatra(northern part, present-day Bareilly, U.P.) and Kampilya (Southern part, present-day Farukkabad, U.P.)   The famous city of Kannauj was situated in this kingdom.  Matsya Viratnagara(Rajasthan) Founder: Virata  Later, it was absorbed into the Magadhan Empire. Shurasena Mathura King: Avantiputra (Disciple of Buddha). Mathura was also known at the time of Magasthenes as the center of Krishna worship. It was annexed by the Magadhan Empire.  Avanti Ujjayini and Mahishamati King: Pradyota (Father-in-law of Udayana). It was annexed by the Magadhan king Sishunaga.   Gandhara Taxila King: Pushkarasarin. He had cordial relations with Magadha and waged a successful war against Avanti. Kamboja Rajapur According to pliny, Cyrus 1 destroyed the famous kamboja city.  Assaka Potali It was the only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhya Range. It was annexed to Magadha during the rule of Mahapadma Nanda.  Magadha Rajgir later shifted to Patliaputra Magadha was ruled by 3 prominent dynasties from the post-vedic times till the rise of the Mauryas: Haryanka, Sishunaga, and Nanda. During the rule of these dynasties, it emerged as the most powerful Mahajanpadas annexing almost all the other Mahajanpadas.   Anga Champa Champa was an important trade and commercial center with its merchants trading with Suvarnabhumi (Southeast Asia)

An Ecological Pyramid is the graphical representation of trophic levels in terms of Biomass, Energy concentrated at a particular trophic level, Number of Organisms, etc. When the organisms are plotted in terms of energy, Biomass, and Number associated at trophic levels, they assume the Pyramidical shape known as the Ecological Pyramid. They are also known as Eltonian Pyramid, named after Charles Elton who developed the concept of Ecological Pyramid. The horizontal bars in the pyramid signify the number of Trophic levels. Types of Ecological Pyramid  Pyramid of numbers  Pyramid of Biomass  Pyramid of Energy  Pyramid of Numbers The pyramid of the number shows the presence of the total no. of organisms of different species at each Trophic level.  This type of Pyramid shows a relationship between the number of Primary producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary and Quaternary consumers, etc.  Depending upon the size and Biomass of the ecosystem the Pyramid of Numbers is of three types Upright Partially Upright  Inverted.  Since it is not possible all the time to count all the organisms, thus the pyramid of numbers does not define the trophic structure of an ecosystem. Also, it does not take into account the variation in the size of organisms present at each trophic level.  Upright Pyramid of Numbers (Grassland and Aquatic (Pond) Ecosystem) The number of organisms successively decreases as we progress from lower to higher trophic levels (i.e. from producer to the consumers).  In the grassland ecosystem grasses occupy the lowest trophic level, and grasshoppers are the primary consumers which are less in numbers. Rats are the secondary consumer whose number is even lesser than the grasshopper and the next higher trophic level is a tertiary consumer (snake) which feeds upon rats. The next higher trophic level is occupied by Hawks in the grassland ecosystem which is even lesser in number compared to snakes. Thus, with each successive level, the no. of organisms decreases making the shape of the Pyramid upright.  In the same manner in the Pond ecosystem, the number of organisms decreases with each successive trophic level.  The lowest trophic level is occupied by the snails then the next levels are followed by the following organisms:  Smaller fishes (Lesser in no compared to Snails),  Bigger Fishes (Primary Carnivore),  Crane (Secondary Carnivore; lesser in number compared to bigger fishes).  Partially Upright Pyramid of numbers The forest ecosystem is an example of a Partially upright ecosystem since fewer producers support more primary consumers (e.g. a single tree is capable of supporting a large no of Primary consumers) but afterward, the Pyramid attains the normal shape since there are fewer secondary and tertiary consumers.  Inverted Pyramid of numbers In the inverted pyramid of numbers, the organisms that are dependent on lower trophic level grows closer to the apex as in the case of the Parasitic Food Chain.  E.g. In this food chain primary producer is a large tree that supports a large no. of parasites or hyper-parasites as primary and secondary consumers. Thus the resultant shape of the pyramid is inverted.  Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Biomass includes the total weight of the organic matter i.e. Biomass, at each trophic level.  The Pyramid of Numbers does not give any idea of weight since it does not take into account the varying shapes and sizes of the organisms, so to fulfill the shortcoming of the ‘Pyramid of Numbers’ the ‘Pyramid of Biomass’ has been introduced.  Pyramid of Biomass measures the total biomass in grams per meter^2 or Calories per meter^2 and this also signifies the amount of matter lost between successive trophic levels.  Pyramid of Biomass doesn’t give any idea about the rate of ecological/ ecosystem productivity.  Upright Pyramid of Biomass In the upright pyramid, the total weight of the producer is larger than the total weight of the consumers.  Example- In the case of a forest ecosystem, the tree that is the producer/autotroph has larger biomass compared to primary or secondary consumers like Birds, insects, etc. Thus, the attained shape is upright.  Inverted Pyramid of Biomass In the case of the inverted pyramid, the total weight of the producer is smaller than the total weight of the primary or secondary consumers.  Example- In the case of an aquatic ecosystem, phytoplankton which supports smaller fishes have lesser biomass, while at the next trophic level, the herbivore fishes have lesser biomass than the carnivore fishes. Thus, we attain an inverted shaped pyramid.  Pyramid of Energy To find an idea about ecological productivity Charles Elton, developed a Pyramid of Energy.  The pyramid of energy represents the total amount of energy present at each trophic level per unit area per unit of time and energy is generally expressed in terms of Kcal/m2/day or Kcal/m2/year.  The pyramid of energy is always upright  since the total energy available for utilization for the successive trophic level is less than the energy available for the previous trophic level. Successive reduction in energy is due to the use of energy for activities like respiration or simply due to heat loss.  The energy pyramid helps in the comparative study of the productivity of a different ecosystem.  The energy pyramid also helps to explain the concept of Biological magnification in which the toxic substances are deposited more at successively higher trophic levels.

Agriculture is the science and art of farming. It includes cultivating the soil, growing crops, and raising livestock. It played an important role in the evolution of human society from a simple hunting and gathering stage to a multifaceted modern society. In India, the history of the agricultural journey began thousands of years ago. Today the agriculture sector provides livelihood to over 151 million people in India. Approximately 60% of the Indian population works in agricultural and related sectors and contributes about 18% to India's GDP. Thus, the agriculture sector is one of the most important sectors for India.   Important aspects of Indian agriculture Major employment sector:  More than half the population of India is engaged in agriculture and allied services. Thus, making agriculture the biggest employment generator (especially in the rural part) of India. India has around 60% of the total population engaged in the agriculture sector, while in developed nations only around 2% to 6% of the total population is engaged in the agriculture sector. Impact on economy:  Since independence agriculture has witnessed significant growth with food grain production surging from 51 million tonnes (MT) in 1950-51 to 330 million tonnes (MT) in 2022-23. But its contribution to GDP is continuously decreasing while that of the service sector is steadily increasing. Today agriculture sector contributes roughly 14% of the country’s total GDP. Dependency on monsoon:  Indian agriculture is mainly monsoon-dependent. In the last few decades, irrigation facilities have increased significantly but still only one-third of the cropped area has permanent irrigation. The remaining two-thirds are dependent on unpredictable and unreliable monsoons. Unseasonal rains also have a significant adverse impact on agriculture.  Lack of mechanism and technology:  Most farming in India is carried out traditionally. The majority farmers use animals and simple tools such as sickles and wooden ploughs due to their inability to buy modern machines and tools. This drastically affects productivity. Lack of awareness:  Many farmers in rural regions are uneducated and thus lack awareness. They are unaware of modern agricultural technologies, available credit facilities, and numerous government schemes. Many farmers in India lack access to markets where they can sell their produce at a fair price. Thus, they become a victim of middlemen who exploit the farmers by paying them very low price. Small Landholdings:  Due to rising population and labor-intensive cultivation the land holdings get fragmented and subdivided which makes landholding sizes small and uneconomical. The average size of landholding in India is 2.3 hectares which is significantly lower than other major countries. More focus on food crops:  Three-fourths of total cultivation land is dedicated to food crops such as wheat, rice, and bajra, while only one-fourth is allocated to commercial crops. Income generated in food crops is comparatively less than that in commercial crops. This contributes to the backward state of agriculture. Unequal distribution of land: Unfortunately, most of the agricultural land ownership is concentrated in the hands of a few rich farmers, landlords, and money lenders. Most farmers own little to no land due to such unequal land distribution, which is worsened by frequent changes in land ownership. Role of government:  The Government of India undertook various measures to improve the agriculture sector. The Green Revolution was one such landmark initiative. Today Government is trying to help farmers with schemes like PM KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi), PMFBJ (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana), AIF (Agriculture Infrastructure Fund), PMKSY (Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana), AHIDF (Animal Husbandry Infrastructure Development Fund), KCC (Kisan Credit Card), PMKMDY (Pradhan Kisan Mantri Maan Dhan Yojana) and many more.

The trophic level interaction among the organisms leads to the formation of the Food Web, Food Chain, and Ecological Pyramid.  Food Chain  All the organisms are related to the sequence in which one feeds on another and the transfer of food energy takes place from the producer to the Consumers (Autotrophs to Carnivores or Omnivores etc.). This sequence is known as the Food Chain.  Types of Food Chains There are two types of food chains known in nature: Grazing and Detritus.  1. Grazing Food Chain This food chain starts with the green plants (or primary producers) at the first trophic level and the green plants are utilized by the consumers as a part of their food.  This food chain is usually large and derives its energy from the sun.  An example of the simple food chain can be given as:  Grass->Insects->Frogs->Snake->Hawk   In the above food chain grass is the primary producer that is eaten by the insects who are the primary consumers. The frog is the secondary consumer as it feeds upon the insects and the Snake is the tertiary consumer since it feeds upon the frog. Hawk is the top carnivore and it eats the snake which is a tertiary consumer.  An example of the food chain in the aquatic ecosystem:  Phytoplankton (Primary producer)-> Zoo Plankton->Fishes->Pelicans  2. Detritus Food Chain  In the detritus food chain, the primary source of energy is dead organic matter (called detritus) of decaying animals or plants. Primary consumers are detritivores which include Bacteria, Fungi, and Protozoans and these detritivores feed upon the detritus. Detritivores are eaten by secondary consumers like nematodes, insect larvae, etc.  The Detritus food chains are generally shorter than the Grazing Food Chains.  Detritus food chains are vital in the ecosystem since the detritivores act upon the dead organic matter of the grazing food chain and help in recycling the elements in the ecosystem.  Example of the Detritus Food Chain : Litter->Earthworms->Chicken->Hawk   Food Web The food chain as an isolated relationship represents only one part of the energy flow. This type of Individual relationship in the form of a Food Chain seldom occurs in an ecosystem. Thus, in nature organisms are interconnected with each other via the multiple feeding relationships of nutrient and energy transfer, which is known as the Food Web.  A food web demonstrates all the possible flow of energy as well as nutrients among the organisms within an ecosystem, unlike a food chain which runs only a single pathway.  The food web provides multiple alternatives for the food to organisms and if any of the intermediate food chains is removed the other succeeding links of the food chain will also be affected to a larger extent. Thus, multiple food chains which are directly related to biodiversity is also vital for the very existence of an ecosystem. Suppose any critical element like Vulture/ Hawk is eliminated from the food chain, in that case, it may affect the whole ecosystem.  Due to the variability of taste, preferences, and various other climatic factors, there is multiplicity and complexity within the food web. For Example, a tiger that does not have deer as a food due to a lack of deer in that region or other factors may resort to other alternatives thus giving origin to another food chain and in turn more complex Food Web.

Sun is the source of energy for almost all the activities on the earth. Less than 50 percent of the incident solar radiation, that we receive on earth, is photosynthetically active radiation (PAR is the light in the 400-700 Nano-meter wavelength range which is available for photosynthesis) and Plants capture only 2-10 percent of the PAR; this small amount of energy sustains the entire living world.  Energy is vital for the sustenance of life on Earth as all the metabolic activity in plants and animals requires energy. Plants and trees are autotrophic and capable of converting solar energy into a usable form of energy for their sustenance, but animals are not capable of converting solar energy into a usable form so animals depend on plants and other animals for their energy need. Thus the sustenance of life on earth is dependent on the flow of energy from autotrophs to consumers, and so the study of this energy flow in an ecosystem is vital to understand whether an ecosystem is sustainable or not.  Flow of Energy The energy flow in the ecosystem is unidirectional i.e. energy flows from the producer to the top consumer.  Either directly or indirectly all the organisms are dependent on the producer for their food.  Trophic-level interaction gives the idea of energy flow within an ecosystem.  The energy trapped in an organism does not remain in it forever, it is either passed to the next trophic level (for example from the Producer to the consumer) or when the organism dies, the death of the organism leads to the start of the detritus food chain/ web.  Trophic Levels Autotrophs  They are also known as the producer since they can produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis. Plants fall under this category.  Phytoplankton, Algae, and Higher Plants are the primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem.  Primary Consumer   They are also known as herbivores and they feed on the primary producer. In terrestrial ecosystems Insects, Birds, and Mammals are some common herbivores while in the aquatic systems, Mollusca is more common than herbivores. Secondary Consumer Secondary Consumers are the organisms that eat Primary Consumers and they can either be carnivores (meat eater) or Omnivores (eat both plant and animal matter), unlike Primary consumers which are only, herbivores (eat plant only).  Tertiary Consumer  They feed largely on Primary and Secondary consumers and are generally carnivores. Frog and Snake fall under this category.  Quaternary Consumer  They feed on tertiary consumers and are considered Top Carnivores. Hawk is considered among this category which feeds upon the snake i.e. tertiary consumer.  Energy Flow via Trophic Level Interaction  The energy flows from the lower trophic level (producer) to the higher trophic level (herbivore, carnivore, etc.) and it does not flow in the opposite direction i.e. from Carnivore to Producer, etc.  The trophic level interaction leads to the formation of the Food Web, Food Chain, and Ecological Pyramid.  Energy Flow and No. of Trophic Levels At each trophic level, there is a loss of energy in the form of heat and as tiny as 10% of the total energy at any trophic level is moved to the ne xt level. Due to this reason, there exist limited no. of trophic levels generally, 4 or 5 and seldom 6 since the energy left to support the organism is very less.  Example– Suppose there are 1000 kilocalories of energy present at the Grassland trophic level, only around 100 kilocalories of energy will be transferred to the next level i.e. Primary consumer and very little around 1 kilocalorie will reach the tertiary consumer level.

The Government of India is serious about its commitments regarding the environment and has been working actively in the field. Also, there are many crucial PSUs and Organizations that are working for Energy Resources like NTPC, NHPC, REC, PFC, PTC, NTPI, North Eastern Electric, Satluj Jal Vidyut Nigam, Tehri Hydro Development, etc. In this article, we will be looking at some of the Government Initiatives on Energy Resources: Fame-India Scheme It is a scheme for the encouragement of electric vehicles. It's part of the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan. Its focus areas are Technology development, Demand Creation, Pilot Projects, and Charging Infrastructure. An extended version of this scheme known as the Fame-2 scheme came with an extended budget and extended goals like: increasing the number of electric public vehicles and commercial use. The government will also encourage funding for electric buses, and three and four-wheelers for commercial use. Government schemes for 2021 to help Boost EV adoption Intending to decrease carbon emissions to almost 0 by 2070, India is working towards the rapid increase of the adoption of Electric Vehicles. Various measures are being taken for this purpose such as: PLI scheme for the auto sector FAME II Amendment Scrappage Policy National Policy on Biofuels 2018 In The Union Cabinet, 2018, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi approved the National Policy on Biofuels 2018. What does this policy say? Biofuel is categorized as ‘Basic Biofuels’ Encouragement of production of ethanol with the use of sugarcane juice, damaged grains, etc. For farmer’s advantage, the use of grains in huge amounts has been advised for the production of ethanol Increased funding for 2G Biofuel production Encouragement of production process using non-edible oilseeds and cooking oil Urja Sangam 2015/PAHAL It was launched by PM Narendra Modi ji as a ‘Give it up’ campaign to give up the LPG  subsidy and announced a target to bring Piped Natural Gas (PNG) to 1 crore houses. Ujjwala Yojana It was launched in Ballia by PM Narendra Modi ji in May 2016 under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas. This scheme was made to distribute 8 crore gas connections to the women lying under BPL. The families will be identified through the Socio-economic cast Census (SECC) and given Rs. 1,600 per connection for financial assistance. After the introduction of Ujjwala 2.0, the target increased from BPL women to women from seven categories: SC, ST, PMAY, AAY, most backward classes, tea gardens, forest dwellers, and Islands. Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga This is a mission by the Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) and the Petroleum Ministry to join Bhubaneswar and Cuttak via the Gas Pipeline connection launched in March 2017. The target was to reach PNG to 20 Lakh Households. The extension of this project is also known as the Northeast Gas Pipeline Grid Project Rural Electrification Policies Some policies are made for 80% of the population which is present in the rural areas of India for supplying electricity at a reasonable cost and providing green and clean energy to rural households. Rural Electrification Policy, 2005 Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojna (RGGVY), 2005 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY), 2015 Saubhagya: Sahaj Bijli Har Ghar Yojana, 2017  Ujwal DISCOM Assurance Yojana (UDAY) This was announced by the Minister of State of Power, Coal, and New Renewable Energy in November 2015. UDAY is a government scheme, that targeted financial restructuring and operational improvement of power distribution companies in India. It aimed to alleviate the financial stress of DISCOMs, enhance efficiency, and ensure a sustainable power sector.   Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs for All (UJALA) UJALA came in March 2015 as DELP then came as UJALA in March 2016. It is a government initiative in India promoting energy efficiency by distributing affordable LED bulbs. It aims to reduce household energy consumption, lower electricity bills, and contribute to environmental sustainability through the widespread adoption of energy-efficient lighting solutions.  NELP and HELP NELP came in February 1999 and HELP came in March 2016. The New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) and Hydrocarbon Exploration and Licensing Policy (HELP) were initiatives to boost oil and gas exploration. They attracted investments, fostered technological advancements, and aimed at reducing India's dependence on energy imports. Energy Policy of India India's comprehensive energy policy prioritizes sustainability, affordability, and security. Emphasizing renewable sources, energy efficiency, and a diversified mix, it aims to meet growing demand while addressing environmental concerns, ensuring a resilient energy landscape.   Integrated Energy Policy The Integrated Energy Policy was released in August 2006 and sought to integrate diverse energy sources, ensuring energy security and sustainable development. By promoting efficient technologies and a balanced energy mix, IEP aimed at meeting the nation's energy needs while mitigating environmental impacts.

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) was established on April 1, 1935, per the provisions of the Reserve Bank of India Act, of 1934. RBI is India's central bank and regulatory body responsible for regulation of the Indian banking system. It is under the ownership of the Ministry of Finance, Government of India. The Reserve Bank's affairs are governed by a central board of directors. The board is appointed by the Government of India in keeping with the Reserve Bank of India Act. The directors are appointed/nominated for a period of four years.  The Preamble of the Reserve Bank of India describes the basic functions of the Reserve Bank as: "To regulate the issue of Bank notes and keeping of reserves with a view to securing monetary stability in India and generally to operate the currency and credit system of the country to its advantage; to have a modern monetary policy framework to meet the challenge of an increasingly complex economy, to maintain price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth." Main Functions of RBI are:  Monetary Authority Formulates, implements, and monitors the monetary policy. Objective: maintaining price stability while keeping in mind the objective of growth. Regulator and supervisor of the financial system: Prescribes broad parameters of banking operations within which the country's banking and financial system functions. Objective: maintain public confidence in the system, protect depositors' interest, and provide cost-effective banking services to the public. Manager of Foreign Exchange Manages the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. Objective: to facilitate external trade and payment and promote orderly development and maintenance of the foreign exchange market in India. Issuer of currency Issues, exchanges, and destroys currency notes as well as put into circulation coins minted by the Government of India. Objective: to give the public an adequate quantity of supplies of currency notes and coins in good quality. Developmental role Performs a wide range of promotional functions to support national objectives. Regulator and Supervisor of Payment and Settlement Systems Introduces and upgrades safe and efficient modes of payment systems in the country to meet the requirements of the public at large. Objective: maintain public confidence in the payment and settlement system. Related Functions Banker to the Government: performs merchant banking function for the central and the state governments; also acts as their banker. Banker to banks: maintains banking accounts of all scheduled banks.

Bhutan is a landlocked Himalayan state that shares approximately 700 km of its border with India. It borders four Indian states viz Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh. Apart from India, Bhutan also shares its borders with China and Nepal. The bilateral relations of both countries have been very cordial. No wonder, PM Modi chose to visit Bhutan as the destination of choice for his first foreign visit as Prime Minister in 2014. Bhutan is a monarchical democracy with Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuk as the current king of Bhutan. Most of its population follows Buddhism. It is one of the top countries in the world in terms of human happiness and its then king Jigme Singye Wangchuck gave the world, the concept of the Gross National Happiness Index way back in 1972. Both countries have an open borders system i.e. their nationals do not require visas to visit the other country. The boundary between the two countries is defined by the Treaty of Sinchula 1865 between British India and the Kingdom of Bhutan. In the modern era, the basic framework of India-Bhutan relations is the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation signed in 1949 between the two countries, which was re-negotiated, and provisions were amended to encourage Bhutan’s sovereignty, abolishing the need to take India’s guidance on foreign policy. The formal diplomatic relations between India and Bhutan were established in 1968. Trade and Economic Ties   The India-Bhutan Agreement on Trade, Commerce, and Transit – was first signed in 1972 and revised and renewed most recently for the fifth time in 2016. India is Bhutan's top trade partner both as an import source and as an export destination. In 2021-22, India's bilateral trade with Bhutan was USD 1422 million, of which India's exports to Bhutan amounted to USD 877 million and India's imports from Bhutan were USD 545 million. India is also the leading source of investments in Bhutan, comprising 50% of the country’s total FDI. There are about 30 Indian companies in Bhutan operating in various sectors - banking, manufacturing, electricity generation, agri/food processing, ITES, pharmaceuticals, hospitality, and education. India has been extending economic assistance to Bhutan’s socio-economic development since the early 1960s when Bhutan launched Five Year Plans. India continues to be the principal development partner of Bhutan. For the 12th Five Year Plan (2018-23), India’s contribution of Rs. 4500 cr. constitutes 73% of Bhutan’s total external grant component. In order to facilitate trade and people to people connect,  both countries are opening more trade routes. In fact, in 2021 alone, India and Bhutan agreed to open seven new trade entry and exit points in addition to the 21 land/air routes approved in the 2016 treaty. Bhutan has big potential for hydropower. It has a theoretical potential of 30,000 MW. No wonder, India is playing an important role in the development of hydropower projects in Bhutan. This not only provides Bhutanese with electricity for domestic use but also revenue from surplus electricity exported to India. So far, India has constructed four Hydroelectric Projects in Bhutan including the 60 MW Kurichhu HEP; 1020 MW Tala HEP; the 336 MW Chukha HEP; and the 720 MW Mangdechhu HEP. Also, three Hydroelectric projects that are under construction include the 1200 MW Punatsangchhu-I, the 1020 MW Punatsangchhu-II, and the 600 MW Kholongchhu. There is close bilateral cooperation in the educational and cultural fields between India and Bhutan. Over 950 scholarships are being provided annually by GoI for Bhutanese students to study in India in a wide range of disciplines including medicine, engineering, etc. It is estimated that approximately 4,000 Bhutanese are studying in undergraduate courses in Indian Universities. Further, about 50,000 Indian citizens are working in Bhutan, mainly in the construction sector, education, and technical consultants involved in infrastructure projects. Some Indian daily workers also enter and exit Bhutan every day in the border towns, as a sign of the close economic inter-dependence between both countries. Border and Security issues Both countries carry very cordial security relations.  Bhutan has been historically sensitive to India’s security concerns, Bhutan is supportive of India's campaign against various insurgent groups of North East and has conducted/supported military operations to flush out such insurgents from its soil. As mentioned above, India and Bhutan share a 699 km long border, which has been largely peaceful. However, Bhutan has a very strategic location between India and China. India sees Bhutan as a buffer between India and China. China's increasing presence in Bhutan, particularly along the border between Bhutan and China, has raised concerns in India. The Doklam standoff in 2017 was a major flashpoint in the India-China-Bhutan tri-junction. The Doklam trijunction is crucial for India as it lies precariously close to the Siliguri Corridor otherwise known as India’s Chicken’s Neck. Recently, China has also claimed the Sakteng sanctuary, which is on Bhutan’s east and does not border India. China has also encroached on various villages on northern borders (like Beyul).  It appears China is trying to create pressure on Bhutan by garbing other border areas so that Bhutan acceded to China in the Doklam sector. Though Bhutan is sensitive to India’s concerns, however recent statement by Bhutanese PM Lotay Tshering suggests that Bhutan may be taking a more pragmatic approach to the Doklam dispute with China, potentially at India's expense, thus raising concerns in India. In a nutshell, the overall relations of both countries have been very cordial. However, Bhutan sometimes feels sandwiched between two giants India and China and thus tries to balance relations between the two. Also with rising and maturing democracy, Bhutan's aspirations have been rising especially of the younger generation which is exposed to the world. Sometimes, there is a feeling in Bhutan about India playing the role of big brother, however, India has always been sensitive to Bhutan’s needs (as reflected in the 2007 treat). Bhutan is also well aware of the threat from China (as also seen in the case of Tibet and China’s boundary issues with almost every neighbor) while on the other hand relations between India and Bhutan are based on mutual trust and cooperation.

The Early Vedic period (1500-1000 BCE) also known as the Rigvedic period includes the family books (Mandal 2-7). The word Veda has been derived from the word ‘vid’ which means to know/knowledge. The literature of the Vedic period gives a detailed account of the Geographical, Political, Social, and Economic conditions of the society and is classified as shruti and smriti. There are four Vedas, the Rig Veda was compiled during the early Vedic period, and the other three Vedas in the later Vedic period.  Every Veda generally has four parts Brahmanas, Aranyaka, Samhita, and Upanishad. The Rig Veda is divided into 10 mandals (books) comprising 1028 hymns. Mandals 2-7 are the earliest mandals and the remaining 1,8, 9, and 10 were written later. Rig Ved is included in the UNESCO world cultural intangible heritage. Aittareya and Kaushitaki are the Brahmanas of the Rig Ved. Geography The geographical spread of early Rig Vedic people covers present-day eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and western Uttar Pradesh. The creation of the universe is mentioned in the Nasadiya Sukta and rivers in Nadistuti in the 10th Mandal of the Rig Veda. Polity The political structure was similar to the monarchical form but the Gopati(chief) was elected by the assembly called samiti. Tribal assemblies were used to help the Rajan (king) in administration. No system of Taxation but voluntary offerings were taken. The battle of 10 kings, is recounted in the 7th Mandal. Economy The economy was mainly pastoral but they were also familiar with agriculture. We find mention of cattle used for ploughing. Shifting agriculture was practiced. They did not use iron but were familiar with the Ayas (Copper) and bronze. Limited crafts such as Takshan(Carpenter), Hiranakara(Goldsmith), Vaptri(Barbers), potters, Grinders, etc are mentioned. Society The active participation of women in Sabha and Samiti signifies the political hold of women and reflects their egalitarian nature. Women were allowed to learn and write Vedas and after taking part in the Upanayana ceremony (Thread Ceremony) women were considered the Dwija(Twice Born). Monogamy was generally practiced and there are instances of polyandry and polygamy. Women were allowed to choose their partner (Swayamvar). There are few instances of Widow remarriage and no instances of sati, purdah, and child marriage. Religion The nature of worship was Henotheism and Kathenotheism. There was neither temple worship nor idol worship. They personified natural forces and divided divinities into 3 categories i.e., Prithvisthana, Madhyamsthana, and Dyusthana. Rig Vedic God and goddesses include Indra, Agni, Varuna, Soma, Yama, Rudra, Surya, Pushan, Aditi, Prithvi, Usha, and Savitri (Gayatri Mantra is attributed to the 3rd Mandal). The education, Political inclusion, Socio-cultural practice, and condition of women of the Rig Vedic period have influenced many reformers such as Swami Dayanand Saraswati who gave the slogan “Go back to the Vedas”. References: A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, Upinder Singh Ancient and Medieval India, Poonam Dalal Dahiya Higher Secondary First year, Tamil Nadu Board Prateek Nayak Notes

In the previous article, we discussed trade and economic relations. Now we shall discuss the transportation and energy relationship between the two nations. Transport and Energy relationship Energy links and connectivity have been a key focus for both countries in recent years. Both countries are looking to deepen the relationship with multi-faceted connectivity because connectivity ensures increased productivity and socio-economic benefits. Connectivity includes a multi-modal approach including highways, waterways, railways, and airways. Some of the key projects that were recently inaugurated or are under implementation are: In November 2023, both countries inaugurated the Akhaura-Agartala rail link. The MoU to develop the said rail link was signed in 2013 with grant assistance from India. This link will bring North East states of India closer to the Chittagong port of Bangladesh. Also, with the opening of this section, India can run trains from Kolkata to Agartala via Bangladesh which will reduce the time from currently 38 hours to 12 hours. Currently, 3 trains viz the Bandhan Express, the Maitree Express, and the Mitali Express, run between West Bengal and Bangladesh. The two countries also inaugurated the Khulna-Mongla Port rail line project, implemented under Indian concessional credit with a total project cost of $388.92 million, a true demonstration of its neighborhood-first policy. With this, Mongla port which is the second largest port of Bangladesh, gets connected with the existing broad-gauge railway network at Khulna. This will also help India as well to access Mongla port for trade. In August 2023, India and Bangladesh signed an agreement, allowing Indian traders to use Chittagong and Mongla ports in Bangladesh for the transportation of goods to northeastern Indian states. The four routes that have been identified for the same are (a) Chittagong Port-Akhaura-Agartala, (b) Mongla Port-Akhaura-Agartala, (c) Chittagong- Bibirbazar - Srimantapur, and (d) Mongla Port-Bibirbazar - Srimantapur. So these routes highlight the importance of the recently inaugurated Akhaura - Agartala rail link and Khulna Mongla rail link Both countries are also developing Matabari deep sea port off the coast of the Bay of Bengal in collaboration with Japan. This is part of the “Bay of Bengal Northeast Industrial Value Chain Concept", which aims to attract global manufacturing to India’s Northeast and Bangladesh by relying on improved connectivity. Another focus is to improve cross-border power and energy trade. In November 2023, both countries inaugurated the Maitree super thermal power of 1320 MW. This joint venture is between the Bangladesh Power Development Board and India’s NTPC. Earlier in March 2023, both countries also inaugurated the India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline. This is a first-of-its-kind cross-border energy pipeline between India and Bangladesh, built for INR 377 crore, under grant assistance by the Government of India. The India-Bangladesh Friendship Pipeline will transport one Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA) of High-Speed Diesel to Bangladesh in a sustainable, reliable, and cost-effective manner with a minimal carbon footprint.